I. Process Costing

Pengkosan proses adalah satu sistem pengkosan yang mengumpulkan kos mengikut jabatan bagi satu tempoh masa. Jabatan tersebut akan menjadi asa bagi pengiraan kos seunit.


Kos yang dikumpulkan oleh jabatan tersebut bagi satu tempoh masa, contohnya sebulan, tnapa mengaitkan kos dengan mana-mana unit secara individu. Pada akhir tempoh, jumlah kos akan dibahagikan dengan jumlah output fizikal untuk mendapatkan purata kos seunit.

Satu laporan kos pengeluaran akan disediakan di mana menunjukkan semua kos bahan langsung, buruh langsung dan overhead kilang yang dilibatkan untuk memproses seunit produk yang melalui setiap jabatan dan kos setiap unit produk siap.


Terdapat 5 langkah dalam perakaunan bagi pengkosan proses:

A. Mengira aliran fizikal produk kedalam dan keluar sesuatu jabatan.

B. Menentukan unit persamaan pengeluaran (EUP) menggunakan sama ada kaedah purata wajaran atau kaedah masuk dulu, keluar dulu (MDKD/FIFO).

C. Meringkaskan jumlah kos mengikut kategori utama.

D. Mengira kos seunit dengan menggunakan unit persamaan pengeluaran (EUP) seperti pengiraan dalam langkah 2.

E. Memperuntuk dan menyesuaikan jumlah kos.

1. Menentukan kos bagi barang siap dan kos kerja dalam proses pada akhir tempoh dan
2. Semak untuk menentukan sama ada jumlah kos yang akan direkod (jumlah kos dalam pengeluaran sepanjang tempoh) adalah sama dengan jumlah kos barang siap berserta dengan kos kerja dalam proses.

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II. Kaedah Purata Wajaran

Di bawah kaedah purata wajaran, menentukan unit persaman pengeluaran (eup) dan kos seunit, dan kerja dalam proses pada akhir tempoh (kedua-dua unit dan kos) ditambah kepada pengeluaran dalam tempoh semasa (kedua-dua unit dan kos) dan mengira purata unit persamaan pengeluaran dan kos seunit.

Semua unit yang disiapkan sepanjang tempoh yang diberikan akan diagihkan kos seunit yang sama, tanpa mengira bila ianya dimulakan.

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III. Kaedah MDKD(FIFO)

Kaedah MDKD (FIFO) berasaskan kepada andaian bahawa unit-unit yang diproses akan disiapkan terlebih dahulu.

Justeru itu, kos yang mula-mula dilibatkan sepanjang satu tempoh akan direkod untuk melengkapkan unit yang dimulakan dahulu ( kerja dalam proses pada awal tempoh).


Selepas kerja dalam proses disiapkan, kos-kos akan dikira ke atas unit-unit baru yang dimulakan sepanjang tempoh semasa.

Unit-unit dalam proses diasingkan dari pengeluaran baru dan kos-kos bagi dua tempoh (semasa dan masa lepas) juga tidak disatukan sebelum pemindahan akhir pengeluaran sempurna keluar dari sesebuah jabatan.

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IV. Cost Flow

Purchases of raw materials
Raw materials
Accounts payable

Issue direct materials to production
Work in process--Department A
Raw materials

Employ direct labor
Work in process--Department A
Accrued payroll

Incur manufacturing O/H
Manufacturing O/H
Accounts payable, accumulated depreciation, etc.

Apply O/H to production
Work in process--Department A
Manufacturing O/H

Transfer to next department
Work in process--Department B
Work in process-Department A

Transfer to finished goods
Finished goods
Work in process--Department B

Sell goods
Accounts receivable
Sales

Cost of sales
Finished goods


Close over(under)applied O/H

1. To cost of sales

Cost of sales
Manufacturing O/H
(If underapplied)

Manufacturing O/H
Cost of sales
(If overapplied)

2. Prorate to cost of sales, finished goods and work in process on the basis of the balances in the accounts

Cost of sales
Finished goods
Work in process--Department
Manufacturing O/H
(If underapplied)

Manufacturing O/H
Cost of sales
Finished goods
Work in process--Department
(If overapplied)

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V. Cost of Production Report

The purpose is to summarize all the periodic activity in a department's work in process account. The report can utilize FIFO or the weighted-average technique in calculating the equivalent units of production.

Example: A firm produces a product which requires processing through three departments: grinding, mixing and cooking. Data for the grinding department during a recent period follow: (000 omitted)

Units:
Work in process, beginning inventory: 5
Work in process, ending inventory: 4
Started during the period: 80
Shipped out during the period: 81


Costs:
Work in process, beginning inventory: $7.60
Material X $4.80
Material Y 0.00
Conversion cost 2.80
Added during period:
Material X $60.00
Material Y $25.50
Conversion $36.90

Material X is added at beginning of work in the department. Material Y is added when the goods are 60% complete as to conversion. Conversion costs are added uniformly during work in the department. The beginning work in process inventory is 40% complete as to conversion and the ending work in process inventory is 75% complete.

Further reading:
Process Costing 1

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Cost Flow

The journal entries to record the costs as flow through and out of the firm follow:

* Purchases of raw materials
Raw materials
Accounts payable

* Issue direct materials to production
Work in process
Raw materials

* Employ direct labor

Work in process
Accrued payroll

* Incur actual manufacturing OH expenses
Manufacturing OH
Accounts payable, accumulated depreciation, etc.

* Apply manufacturing OH to production
Work in process
Manufacturing OH

* Complete jobs
Finished goods
Work in process

* Sell goods
Accounts receivable
Sales
Cost of goods sold
Finished goods


* Close over (under) applied OH

1. To cost of sales

a) If manufacturing OH is underapplied

Cost of goods sold
Manufacturing OH


b) If manufacturing OH is overapplied

Manufacturing OH
Cost of goods sold

2. Prorate to cost of sales, finished goods and work in process on the basis of the balances in the accounts.

a) If manufacturing OH is underapplied

Cost of goods sold
Finished goods
Work in process
Manufacturing OH

b) If manufacturing OH is overapplied

Manufacturing OH
Cost of goods sold
Finished goods
Work in process


Example: Monthly activities to be journalized using a job-order costing system:

* Raw materials purchased, $150,000

Raw materials 150,000
Accounts Payable 150,000

* Raw materials issued to jobs, $120,000. (90% direct, 10% indirect)

Work in process 108,000
Manufacturing OH 12,000
Raw materials 120,000

* Factory payroll, $200,000, of which $140,000 is for direct labor

Work in process 140,000
Manufacturing OH 60,000
Accrued payroll 200,000

* Depreciation of factory equipment $18,000

Manufacturing OH 18,000
Accumulated depreciation 18,000

* Other manufacturing OH incurred during the month, $90,000

Manufacturing OH 90,000
Accounts payable, etc. 90,000

* OH is applied at $9 per machine hour. 21,000 MH used during the month

Work in process 189,000
Manufacturing OH 189,000

* Jobs finished amounted to $450,000

Finished goods 450,000
Work in process 450,000

* Orders shipped to customers, which cost $400,000, were billed at 50% above cost

Accounts receivable 600,000
Sales 600,000

Cost of sales 400,000
Finished goods 400,000

* Over (under) applied manufacturing O/H is closed to cost of sales

Manufacturing O/H 9,000
Cost of sales 9,000

What is the ending balance in the following accounts? Assume that the beginning balance in work in process is $33,000.

Cost of sales $391,000
Work in Process 20,000
Finished goods 50,000

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A. Job-order costing requires the collection of costs by physically identifiable jobs using job-order cost sheets. The jobs become the basis for calculating unit costs.

The basic elements for a job-order cost system are:

1. Job-order cost sheet.
2. Materials requisition form.
3. Employee time ticket.
4. Overhead rate.
5. Completed job sheet.


B. Accounting for cost elements:

1.Direct material and direct labor. These costs can be traced directly to a job (job-order costing) or to a producing department (process costing) and subsequently to the product.


2.Manufacturing overhead. These costs are not readily traceable to the product, but they can be:

a.traced directly to producing departments and indirectly to the product.


b.traced directly to service departments and indirectly to producing departments and indirectly to the product.


c.In making the allocation of manufacturing overhead to products, the calculation of a manufacturing overhead rate is required. The overhead rate can be used with one of several costing systems that are available:

1)actual costing under which all manufacturing costs are charged to the product at actual cost. This would occur at the end of the accounting period once all the actual costs and activity (DLH, MH, DL$, etc,) are known.

OH rate = actual OH / actual activity

The amount of manufacturing overhead charged to production is equal to the actual overhead rate multiplied by the actual activity (inputs).

2)normal costing under which actual material and labor costs are assigned directly to the product but manufacturing overhead costs are assigned the product using a predetermined overhead rate.

This requires an estimate of overhead expenses and related activity before the period begins.

OH rate = estimated OH / estimated activity

The amount of manufacturing overhead Charged to production is equal to the predetermined OH rate multiplied by the actual inputs (DLH, MH, DL$, etc.).

The predetermined overhead charged to production will equal actual manufacturing overhead only if the estimated activity and expenses are predicted with absolute accuracy.

The difference between the overhead charged to production and the overhead actually incurred is considered to be:

*underapplied if actual manufacturing OH expenses exceed the applied manufacturing OH expenses.

*overapplied if applied manufacturing OH expenses exceed the actual manufacturing overhead.

At the end of the accounting period, the under or overapplied overhead is closed to:

*cost of goods sold or

*cost of goods sold, work in process and finished goods in proportion to the ending balances in these accounts.

As jobs are completed, the cost of the completed job is transferred from work in process to finished goods. The value of the work in process inventory is equal to the total costs accumulated for each job still in process.

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Para pengurus menghadapi masalah yang sukar dalam menentukan amaun bahan, buruh dan overhead bagi setiap unit separa siap dan unit siap sepenuhnya. Perkara ini memerlukan pengiktirafan dua perkara:
* bentuk proses pengeluaran dan
* kitaran perakaunan kos

Secara umumnya terdapat dua kaedah atau sistem untuk mengira kos perkilangan bagi setiap produk secara individu:
A. Pengkosan pesanan kerja (Job-order costing)
B. Pengkosan Proses (Process costing)



A. Job-order costing

Under job-order costing, costs are collected by physically identifiable jobs. Upon completion, the total costs accumulated for the job are transferred to the finished goods account. To determine the unit cost of a product, the total cost of the job is divided by the number of units produced. Costs that have been accumulated for the jobs still in process at the end of a period the value of the ending work in process inventory.


B. Process costing

Under process costing, costs are collected by department for a specified period of time. Costs are collected by department for a period, such as a month, without any attempt to associate costs with the individual units. At the end of the period, the total costs collected for the department are divided by the physical output to obtain an average cost. A cost of production report is prepared which shows the cost of direct material, direct labor and manufacturing overhead used to process a unit through a department; the cost of each unit of finished product; and the value of the work in process inventory.

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Pengkelasan Kos

I. Kos Perkilangan (Manufacturing Costs)
II. Kos Bukan Perkilangan (Nonmanufacturing Costs )
III. Kos Produk dan Kos Tempoh (Product and Period Costs)
IV. Kos bagi Perancangan, Kawalan dan Pembuatan Keputusan

Nota Bab 2 boleh di muat turun di sini


I. Kos Perkilangan

Terdapat 3 jenis kos perkilangan iaitu;

A. Bahan langsung. Ia merupakan kos berubah.
B. Buruh langsung. Ia juga merupakan kos berubah.
C. Overhead perkilangan. Semua kos perkilangan selain dari kos bahan langsung dan kos buruh langsung dikelaskan sebagai overhead perkilangan; (e.g., idle time, overtime premium, indirect labor, indirect materials, factory depreciation, factory rent, factory insurance, etc.)
Sebahagiannya terdiri daripada kos berubah dan sebahagian bersifat kos tetap.


II. Kos Bukan Perkilangan

Secara umumnya kos bukan perkilangan dikelaskan mengikut:
A. Belanja jualan atau pemasaran. Ada yang merupakan kos tetap dan sebahagian yang lain merupakan kos berubah.
B. Belanja pentadbiran. Juga ada yang bersifat kos tetap dan ada yang bersifat kos berubah.


III. Product and Period Costs

The traditional financial accounting model (GAAP):
A. Product costs are identified as manufacturing costs.
B. Period costs are identified as selling and administrative expenses.


IV. Costs for Planning, Control and Decision-making

Costs are often classified one way for planning, another for control and yet another for decision-making. Some of the various ways of classifying costs follow:

A. Variable costs
B. Fixed costs
C. Direct costs
D. Indirect costs
E. Controllable costs
F. Non-controllable costs
G. Differential or incremental costs
H. Opportunity costs
I. Sunk costs

Baca juga:
Introduction-to-cost-terms-and-purposes

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Terdapat enam perbezaan utama antara Perakaunan Pengurusan dan Perakaunan Kewangan

i. Pengguna Maklumat
ii. Penekanan terhadap masa (sejarah, semasa dan masa depan)
iii. Relevan sesuatu data
iv. Ketepatan data vs Ketepatan masa laporan
v. Sebuah organisasi atau sesuatu bahagian/unit
vi. Keperluan peraturan dan undang-undang

Slide Bab 1 Boleh di muat turun di sini

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Terdapat tujuh perbezaan utama antara Perakaunan Pengurusan dan Perakaunan Kewangan

i. Pengguna Maklumat

1. Financial accounting reports are prepared for external parties, whereas managerial accounting reports are prepared for internal users.

ii. Emphasis on the future

1. Financial accounting summarizes past transactions. Managerial accounting has a strong future orientation.


iii. Relevance of data

1. Financial accounting data should be objective and verifiable. Managerial accountants focus on providing relevant data even if it is not completely objective or verifiable.

iv. Less emphasis on precision

1. Financial accounting focuses on precision when reporting to external parties. Managerial accounting aids decision makers by providing good estimates as soon as possible rather than waiting for precise data later.

v. Segments of an organization

1. Financial accounting is concerned with reporting for the company as a whole. Managerial accounting focuses more on the segments of the company. Examples of segments include:
a. Product lines, sales territories, divisions, departments, etc.

vi. Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP)

1. Financial accounting conforms to GAAP. Managerial accounting is not bound by GAAP.

vii. Managerial accounting – not mandatory

1. Financial accounting is mandatory because various outside parties require periodic financial statements. Managerial accounting is not mandatory.


Baca juga:
Accountants-role-in-organization

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Kuliah

Selasa : 11.30 pagi - 1.30 tengahari
Tempat: BK6

Rabu : 2.30 petang - 04.30 petang
Tempat: BK6

PERHATIAN*
Kuliah pertama bermula pada Selasa, 13 Januari 2009 jam 11.30 pagi.

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