Perakaunan Pengurusan

MKK 40%

2010-04-23T21:19:00.000-07:00

Sila semak dan jumpa saya jika perlu sebelum saya hantar ke pejabat akademik. Saya beri tempoh satu minggu untuk anda membuat cadangan balas membaiki gred.

DDG-DDW2243-mkk40%

Keputusan Ujian 2

2010-04-23T20:58:00.000-07:00

Pelajar-pelajar yang mendapat kurang daripada 20/40 sila berjumpa saya segera!

DDG-DDW2243-TEST2

Jawapan Perbincangan dalam Kelas - Bab 3

2010-02-02T20:49:00.001-08:00

ddw2243-Ch03

Tugasan

2010-01-19T21:20:00.000-08:00

Bab 1 (Pengenalan kepada Perakaunan Pengurusan)

Q 1-1 sehingga Q 1-10

Bab 2 (Konsep kos dan Pengkelasannya) - Pembetulan, terima kasih Sdra Faizul dan Sdri Misshacks

Q 2-1 sehingga Q 2-8
E2-1 sehingga E2-4

Tugasan perlu disiap sebelum jam 8.00 pagi 24/1/2010

Jawapan Tutorial Bab 13

2009-11-14T22:32:00.000-08:00

ddw2243-tutorial-Exercise 13

ANALISIS KOS VOLUM UNTUNG

2009-09-11T17:15:00.000-07:00

ANALISIS KVU

Mengkaji hubungan antara kos, volum dan untung bagi tujuan perancangan dan pembuatan keputusan dalam sesebuah organisasi.

KEPENTINGAN ANALISIS KVU

1-Menentukan tahap jualan pada TPM.
2-Menentukan jualan yang diperlukan bagi mencapai sasaran untung.
3-Membuat keputusan berkaitan polisi penetapan harga.
4-Membuat keputusan berkaitan kos tetap dan strategi pemasaran.
5-Mengkaji kesan terhadap untung bila ada perubahan dalam elemen analisis KVU.

TITIK PULANG MODAL

1-Pada TPM, perniagaan tidak memperolehi untung ataupun rugi.
2-Untung adalah sifar, dimana Jumlah Hasil = Jumlah Kos
3-Kepentingannya ialah bagi menunukkan tahap minimum jualan yang perlu diperolehi oleh perniagaan supaya tidak mengalami kerugian.

KAEDAH ANALISIS KVU

1-Margin Sumbangan
2-Lakaran Graf
3-Persamaan

1-KAEDAH MARGIN SUMBANGAN

Margin Sumbangan(MS):

Lebihan hasil jualan daripada kos berubah
Jumlah yang dapat menampung kos tetap dan seterusnya
untuk mendapatkan untung bersih.

Margin sumbangan seunit (MS/U):

Lebihan harga jualan seunit ke atas kos berubah seunit.

2-Lakaran Graf

3-KAEDAH PERSAMAAN

UB = JUMLAH HASIL(JH) – JUMLAH KOS

UB = JH – (KT + KB)

= JH – KT – KB

= (UJ x Hg J)- KT – (UJ x KB/U)

UB= untung bersih
UJ= unit jualan
HgJ= Harga jualan

MARGIN KESELAMATAN (MK)

1-Perbezaan di antara jualan sebenar (atau jualan jangkaan) dengan jualan pada titik pulang modal.

2-Dapat menunjukkan sejauhmana jumlah jualan boleh menurun atau berkurang sebelum berlaku kerugian.

3-Lebih tinggi nilai MK, lebih selesa perniagaan.

4-Boleh dinyatakan dalam bentuk ringgit dan peratus.

FORMULA;

Margin Keselamatan (RM) = Jualan Sebenar/Jangkaan Jualan – Jualan pada TPM

Margin Keselamatan (%) = Margin keselamatan (RM)
------------------------------
Jualan sebenar/Jangkaan Jualan

ANALISIS SENSITIVITI

Kesan perubahan dalam harga jualan, kos berubah dan kos tetap ke atas KVU (guna kaedah margin sumbangan)

Perubahan dalam harga jualan:
- Perancangan dalam penetapan harga jualan untuk mencapai TPM atau untung sasaran.

Perubahan dalam Kos Berubah
- Perubahan dalam kos berubah akan menyebabkan margin caruman berubah.

Perubahan dalam Kos Tetap
- Mengira berapa unit yang perlu dijual oleh syarikat untuk mencapai TPM dan untung sasaran, sekiranya berlaku perubahan kos tetap.

Tugasan 1 pada 3 Ogos 2009

2009-08-02T20:31:00.000-07:00

tugasan-1-W1

Silibus Perakaunan Pengurusan KTD

2009-08-01T20:21:00.000-07:00

DDW-2243-KTD-Silibus

Jawapan Kuiz Pada 29 April

2009-05-08T06:03:00.000-07:00

SPECIAL ORDERS

2009-04-13T23:08:00.000-07:00

A special order is a one-time order that does not affect the company’s normal sales.

EXAMPLE: Jamestown Candleworks has just received a request from the Williamsburg Foundation for 800 candles to be used in a special event for major donors. The candles will be used as the only illumination in the reception room and will be given out as gifts to the donors as they leave. The candles will be imprinted with the Williamsburg Foundation logo. This sale will have no effect on the company’s normal sales to retail outlets. The normal selling price of a candle of about the size and weight of the special candles is $3.95 and its unit product cost is $2.30, as shown below:

Direct materials.......................$1.35
Direct labor.............................0.15
Manufacturing overhead............0.80
---------------------------------------
Unit product cost....................$2.30
---------------------------------------

The variable portion of the manufacturing overhead is $0.05 per candle; the other $0.75 represents fixed manufacturing costs that would not be affected by this special order.

Jamestown Candleworks would have to order a special candle mold in which the Williamsburg Foundation logo is inscribed. Such a mold would cost $800. In addition, the Williamsburg Foundation wants a special wick containing gold-like thread that would add $0.20 to the cost of each candle.

Because of the large size of the order and the charitable nature of the work, the Williamsburg Foundation has asked to pay only $2.95 each for this candle.

If accepted, what effect would this order have on the company’s net operating income?

Jawapan

Budgeting - Profit Planning

2009-04-03T18:36:00.000-07:00

Comprehensive Budgeting Example

Royal Company is preparing budgets for the second quarter ending June 30.

• Budgeted sales of the company’s only product for the next five months are:
April 20,000 units
May 50,000 units
June 30,000 units
July 25,000 units
August 15,000 units

• The selling price is $10 per unit.
• The following elements of the master budget will be prepared in this example:
1. Sales budget (with a schedule of expected cash collections).
2. Production budget.
3. Direct materials budget (with a schedule of expected cash disbursements for materials).
4. Direct labor budget.
5. Manufacturing overhead budget.
6. Ending finished goods inventory budget.
7. Selling and administrative expense budget.
8. Cash budget.
9. Budgeted income statement.
10.Budgeted balance sheet.

Sales Budget

	April	May	June	Quarter
Budgeted sales (units)	20,000	50,000	30,000	100,000
Selling price per unit	× $10	× $10	× $10	× $10
Total sales...................	$200,000	$500,000	$300,000	$1,000,000

Schedule of Expected Cash Collections

Additional data:
• All sales are on account.
• The company collects 70% of these credit sales in the month of the sale; 25% are collected in the month following sale; and the remaining 5% are uncollectible.
• The accounts receivable balance on March 31 was $30,000. All of this balance was collectible.

	April	May	June	Quarter
Accounts receivable beginning balance.........	$ 30,000			$ 30,000
April sales
70% × $200,000...........	140,000			140,000
25% × $200,000...........		$ 50,000		50,000
May sales
70% × $500,000...........		350,000		350,000
25% × $500,000...........			$125,000	125,000
June sales 70% × $300,000...........			210,000	210,000
Total cash collections.......	$170,000	$400,000	$335,000	$905,000

Production Budget

Additional data:

• The company desires to have inventory on hand at the end of each month equal to 20% of the following month’s budgeted unit sales.

• On March 31, 4,000 units were on hand.

	April	May	June	July
Budgeted sales .........	20,000	50,000	30,000	25,000
Add desired ending inventory.	10,000	6,000	5,000	3,000*
Total needs..........................	30,000	56,000	35,000	28,000
Less beginning inventory.......	4,000	10,000	6,000	5,000
Required production.............	26,000	46,000	29,000	23,000

*Budgeted sales in August = 15,000 units.

Desired ending inventory in July = 15,000 units × 20% = 3,000 units.

Additional data:

• 5 pounds of material are required per unit of product.

• Management desires to have materials on hand at the end of each month equal to 10% of the following month’s production needs.

• The beginning materials inventory was 13,000 pounds.

• The material costs $0.40 per pound.

	April	May	June	Quarter
Required production in units ...............................	26,000	46,000	29,000	101,000
Raw materials per unit (pounds).............................	× 5	× 5	× 5	× 5
Production needs (pounds)......	130,000	230,000	145,000	505,000
Add desired ending inventory (pounds)* ...........................	23,000	14,500	11,500	11,500
Total needs (pounds)..............	153,000	244,500	156,500	516,500
Less beginning inventory (pounds).............................	13,000	23,000	14,500	13,000
Raw materials to be purchased (pounds).............................	140,000	221,500	142,000	503,500
Cost of raw materials to be purchased at $0.40 per pound................................	$56,000	$88,600	$56,800	$201,400

* For June: 23,000 units produced in July × 5 pounds per unit = 115,000 pounds; 115,000 pounds × 10% = 11,500 pounds

SCHEDULE OF EXPECTED CASH DISBURSEMENTS FOR MATERIAL

Additional data:

• Half of a month’s purchases are paid for in the month of purchase; the other half is paid for in the following month.

• No discounts are given for early payment.

• The accounts payable balance on March 31 was $12,000.

	April	May	June	Quarter
Accounts payable beginning balance..........	$12,000			$ 12,000
April purchases:
50% × $56,000..............	28,000			28,000
50% × $56,000..............		$28,000		28,000
May purchases:
50% × $88,600..............		44,300		44,300
50% × $88,600..............			$44,300	44,300
June purchases:
50% × $56,800..............			28,400	28,400
Total cash disbursements for materials..................	$40,000	$72,300	$72,700	$185,000

DIRECT LABOR BUDGET

Additional data:

• Each unit produced requires 0.05 hour of direct labor.

• Each hour of direct labor costs the company $10.

• Management fully adjusts the workforce to the workload each month.

	April	May	June	Quarter
Required production ........................	26,000	46,000	29,000	101,000
Direct labor-hours per unit	× 0.05	× 0.05	× 0.05	× 0.05
Total direct labor–hours needed........................	1,300	2,300	1,450	5,050
Direct labor cost per hour.	× $10	× $10	× $10	× $10
Total direct labor cost.......	$13,000	$23,000	$14,500	$50,500

Note: Many companies do not fully adjust their direct labor workforce every month and in such companies direct labor behaves more like a fixed cost, with additional cost if overtime is necessary.

MANUFACTURING OVERHEAD BUDGET

Additional data:

• Variable manufacturing overhead is $20 per direct labor-hour.

• Fixed manufacturing overhead is $50,500 per month. This includes $20,500 in depreciation, which is not a cash outflow.

	April	May	June	Quarter
Budgeted direct labor-hours .........................	1,300	2,300	1,450	5,050
Variable manufacturing overhead rate ...........	× $20	× $20	× $20	× $20
Variable manufacturing overhead ..................	$26,000	$46,000	$29,000	$101,000
Fixed manufacturing overhead	50,500	50,500	50,500	151,500
Total manufacturing overhead	76,500	96,500	79,500	252,500
Less depreciation..................	20,500	20,500	20,500	61,500
Cash disbursements for manufacturing overhead .....	$56,000	$76,000	$59,000	$191,000

ENDING FINISHED GOODS INVENTORY BUDGET

Additional data:

• Royal Company uses absorption costing in its budgeted income statement and balance sheet.

•Manufacturing overhead is applied to units of product on the basis of direct labor-hours.

•The company has no work in process inventories.

Computation of absorption unit product cost:

	Quantity		Cost		Total
Direct materials............	5	pounds	$0.40	per pound	$2.00
Direct labor.................	0.05	hours	$10.00	per hour	0.50
Manufacturing overhead	0.05	hours	$50.00	per hour*	2.50
Unit product cost..........					$5.00

Budgeted ending finished goods inventory:

Ending finished goods inventory in units .	5,000
Unit product cost [see above]...........................	× $5
Ending finished goods inventory in dollars..........	$25,000

Selling and Administrative Expense Budget

Additional data:

• Variable selling and administrative expenses are $0.50 per unit sold.

• Fixed selling and administrative expenses are $70,000 per month and include $10,000 in depreciation.

	April	May	June	Quarter
Budgeted sales in units .............	20,000	50,000	30,000	100,000
Variable selling and administrative expense per unit .........................	× $0.50	× $0.50	× $0.50	× $0.50
Variable selling and administrative expense	$10,000	$25,000	$15,000	$ 50,000
Fixed selling and administrative expense.....	70,000	70,000	70,000	210,000
Total selling and administrative expense.....	80,000	95,000	85,000	260,000
Less depreciation...............	10,000	10,000	10,000	30,000
Cash disbursements for selling and administrative expenses........................	$70,000	$85,000	$75,000	$230,000

CASH BUDGET

Additional data:

1. A line of credit is available at a local bank that allows the company to borrow up to $75,000.

a. All borrowing occurs at the beginning of the month, and all repayments occur at the end of the month.

b. The interest rate is 1% per month.

c. The company does not have to make any payments until the end of the quarter.

2. Royal Company desires a cash balance of at least $30,000 at the end of each month. The cash balance at the beginning of April was $40,000.

3.Cash dividends of $51,000 are to be paid to stockholders in April.

4. Equipment purchases of $143,700 are scheduled for May and $48,800 for June. This equipment will be installes and tested during the second quarter and will not become operational until July, when depreciation charges will commence.

Cash Budget

Royal Company
Cash Budget
For the Quarter Ending June 30

	April	May	June	Quarter
Cash balance, beginning.....	$ 40,000	$ 30,000	$ 30,000	$ 40,000
Add receipts:
Cash collections .....	170,000	400,000	335,000	905,000
Total cash available............	210,000	430,000	365,000	945,000

Less disbursements:
Direct materials .....	40,000	72,300	72,700	185,000
Direct labor ............	13,000	23,000	14,500	50,500
Manufacturing overhead .......................	56,000	76,000	59,000	191,000
Selling & administrative .......................	70,000	85,000	75,000	230,000
Equipment purchases.......	0	143,700	48,800	192,500
Dividends........................	51,000	0	0	51,000
Total disbursements............	230,000	400,000	270,000	900,000

Excess (deficiency) of cash available over disbursements.................	(20,000)	30,000	95,000	45,000

Financing:
Borrowings......................	50,000	0	0	50,000
Repayments....................	0	0	(50,000)	(50,000)
Interest*.........................	0	0	( 2,000)	( 2,000)
Total financing...................	50,000	0	(52,000)	( 2,000)

Cash balance, ending.........	$ 30,000	$ 30,000	$ 43,000	$ 43,000

* $50,000 x 1% x 3 = $1,500.

*

Kaedah Pengkosan Berasaskan Aktiviti (ABC)

2009-02-08T00:27:00.000-08:00

Agihan kos overhed kepada produk

Terdapat tiga pendekatan mengagihkan kos overhed kepada produk:

A. Kadar tunggal (plantwide). Secara tradisinya buruh langsung digunakan sebagai asas pembahagian dan ia sesuai apabila:

1. Buruh langsung merupakan bahagian yang signifikan dalam sesuatu kos produk.

2. Perbezaan antara input buruh dan input mesin tidak ketara.

3. Tiada perubahan besar dalam volum atau saiz lot.

4. Buruh langsung sangat berkait dengan kos overhed.

Kadar overhed tunggal bersamaan dengan Jumlah anggaran overhed dibahagi dengan jumlah anggaran aktiviti (DLH, DL$).

Kadar overhed tunggal	=	Jumlah anggaran overhed kilang
		Jumlah aktiviti

B. Kadar overhed jabatan.

1. Bagi setiap produk yang bergerak melalui setiap proses pengeluaran, penggunaan overhed di setiap jabatan adalah mengikut kadar yang telah ditentukan bagi setiap jabatan.

2. Kadar overhed jabatan adlah bersamaan dengan anggaran overhed bagi jabatan tersebut dibahagi dengan jumlah anggaran aktiviti bagi jabatan tersebut (DLH, DL$, MH, etc.).

Kadar overhed jabatan	=	Jumlah anggaran overhed
		Jumlah aktiviti

C. Activity-based costing

Keadaan di mana produk berbeza dari segi volum dan kompleksiti pengeluaran, proses pengeluaran akan dibahagikan mengikut aktiviti-aktiviti yang mempunyai hubungan. Kadar overhed boleh dinyatakan dalam bentuk aktiviti dan dikira ke atas setiap produk berasaskan bilangan aktiviti-aktiviti atau urusniaga yang diperlukan untuk menyiapkan sesuatu produk

Kaedah Pengekosan Berasaskan Aktiviti (ABC)

Kaedah ABC telah diperkenalkan oleh Kaplan dan Cooper di Harvard Business School
sebagai alternatif kepada kaedah perakaunan kos tradisional pada tahun 1984 [9].
Semenjak itu, penggunaannya mula meluas dalam bidang pembuatan dan perniagaan
terutama dalam bidang pengekosan produk. Pengiraan kos langsung seperti kos bahan,
kos buruh dan kos perbelanjaan langsung masih menggunakan kaedah yang
diamalkan dalam pengekosan tradisional. Konsep utama ABC adalah daripada segi
pengenalan kepada konsep kos pasti yang berubah berbanding dengan pengekosan
tradisional yang menganggap semua kos pasti adalah tetap dan perlu diagihkan kepada
produk berdasarkan kuantiti. Kaedah pengekosan ABC mengagihkan kos sumber
yang merangkumi kos pasti kepada kos aktiviti individu yang dikenali sebagai
kelompok kos (cost pool). Selanjutnya kos setiap aktiviti dikenakan kepada setiap produk
berdasarkan faedah yang diterima oleh setiap produk melalui pendesak kos (cost driver).
Rajah 1 menunjukkan model pelaksanaan pengekosan ABC.

Walaupun pengiraan menggunakan kaedah ABC lebih kompleks dan memerlukan
masa yang lebih panjang, dengan perkembangan teknologi maklumat, model
statik dan model dinamik (model simulasi) ABC boleh dilaksanakan dalam masa
dan dengan kos yang munasabah. Pertimbangan antara ketepatan dan kos
penyediaannya perlu diberi perhatian agar manfaat daripada kaedah ini melebihi
daripada kos yang dikeluarkan. Ketepatan kaedah ABC bergantung kepada
pemilihan faktor-faktor aktiviti, kelompok kos dan pendesak kos. Rajah 1 dapat
memperjelaskan model Pengekosan Berasaskan Aktiviti (ABC) yang boleh digunakan.
Di samping dapat menentukan kos yang tepat kepada produk atau perkhidmatan
yang dibekalkan, kaedah ABC juga dapat menentukan kos terhadap setiap
pelanggan syarikat dan juga setiap saluran pengedaran barangan yang diamalkan
oleh syarikat.

Perbandingan Konsep Pengekosan Tradisional dengan Pengekosan ABC

Secara keseluruhannya konsep pengiraan kos secara tradisional memberi penekanan
kos pasti berdasarkan kuantiti pengeluaran. Perbezaan yang besar boleh berlaku
antara anggaran kos pasti yang diserapkan kepada sesuatu produk berbanding kos
pasti sebenar yang digunakan oleh produk tersebut.

Pengiraan kos berdasarkan model ABC memberi fokus kepada penentuan kos
pasti yang lebih tepat. Model ABC dapat menjadikan kos pasti yang dianggap tetap
oleh kaedah pengekosan tradisional kepada bentuk kos berubah. Aktiviti yang
dilakukan akan menggunakan sumber pasti dan paras aktiviti akan menentukan
paras penggunaan sumber. Dengan menggunakan perkaitan ini, pengurus syarikat
akan mempunyai maklumat yang lebih tepat untuk membuat keputusan strategik
berkaitan kos sesuatu aktiviti dan produk. Prestasi sesuatu aktiviti akan mempengaruhi
faktor kritikal kejayaan sesebuah organisasi perniagaan seperti tahap kualiti, kos, masa
penghantaran, dan servis. Dengan mengurus aktiviti utama dengan cekap, faktor
kritikal kejayaan ini dapat dipelihara dan ditingkatkan. Jadual 1 menunjukkan
perbandingan daripada segi faktor yang menjadi penentu kos (pendesak kos) dalam
pengiraan kos secara tradisional dengan ABC.

Jadual 1 Perbandingan faktor penentu kos bagi kaedah pengekosan tradisional dengan kaedah ABC

Kos pasti	Tradisional	ABC
Pembuatan produk	Jam buruh	Bilangan produk
Stor bahan mentah	Jam buruh	Resit dan Issue
Penyediaan (set up)	Jam buruh	Bilangan diperlukan

Metodologi Pelaksanaan Kaedah ABC

Terdapat tujuh langkah yang perlu dipatuhi apabila mereka bentuk model pengiraan
kos ABC,:
(i) Mengenal pasti semua aktiviti. Untuk mengenal pasti aktiviti yang terlibat untuk
menghasilkan sesuatu produk, carta proses aliran perlu disediakan.
(ii) Membina lejar akaun yang bersesuaian. Lejar akaun pengeluaran yang dibina perlu
disemak agar kos yang menghasilkan aktiviti yang sama dapat dikumpulkan.
(iii) Mengenal pasti sumber dan kos. Kenal pasti semua sumber yang digunakan
oleh aktiviti dan tentukan kos bagi setiap sumber tersebut.
(iv) Mendefinisikan pendesak sumber (resources driver). Iaitu pengukuran kuantiti atau
peratusan penggunaan sumber oleh aktiviti. Pendesak sumber adalah seperti
luas lantai bagi kos sewa dan kemudahan asas, jam penggunaan bagi susut nilai
peralatan dan kuasa motor bagi penggunaan tenaga elektrik.
(v) Mengklasifikasikan kos kepada kelompok kos. Kos dikumpulkan mengikut kerja
atau tugas yang menggunakan sumber setara.
(vi) Mengenal pasti pendesak aktiviti. Pendesak aktiviti ialah faktor yang
menyebabkan sesuatu aktiviti itu diperlukan oleh sesuatu produk yang menggunakan
aktiviti tersebut. Kadar pendesak aktiviti diperolehi dari jumlah kos
bagi aktiviti tersebut dibahagi dengan jumlah pendesak aktiviti tersebut.
(vii) Mengira kos produk. Kos produk diperolehi dengan menjumlah kos setiap aktiviti
yang dikenakan kepada produk tersebut dan ditambah dengan kos langsung
yang telah dikira.

Process Costing 1

2009-01-21T23:13:00.001-08:00

I. Process Costing

Pengkosan proses adalah satu sistem pengkosan yang mengumpulkan kos mengikut jabatan bagi satu tempoh masa. Jabatan tersebut akan menjadi asa bagi pengiraan kos seunit.

Kos yang dikumpulkan oleh jabatan tersebut bagi satu tempoh masa, contohnya sebulan, tnapa mengaitkan kos dengan mana-mana unit secara individu. Pada akhir tempoh, jumlah kos akan dibahagikan dengan jumlah output fizikal untuk mendapatkan purata kos seunit.

Satu laporan kos pengeluaran akan disediakan di mana menunjukkan semua kos bahan langsung, buruh langsung dan overhead kilang yang dilibatkan untuk memproses seunit produk yang melalui setiap jabatan dan kos setiap unit produk siap.

Terdapat 5 langkah dalam perakaunan bagi pengkosan proses:

A. Mengira aliran fizikal produk kedalam dan keluar sesuatu jabatan.

B. Menentukan unit persamaan pengeluaran (EUP) menggunakan sama ada kaedah purata wajaran atau kaedah masuk dulu, keluar dulu (MDKD/FIFO).

C. Meringkaskan jumlah kos mengikut kategori utama.

D. Mengira kos seunit dengan menggunakan unit persamaan pengeluaran (EUP) seperti pengiraan dalam langkah 2.

E. Memperuntuk dan menyesuaikan jumlah kos.

Menentukan kos bagi barang siap dan kos kerja dalam proses pada akhir tempoh dan
Semak untuk menentukan sama ada jumlah kos yang akan direkod (jumlah kos dalam pengeluaran sepanjang tempoh) adalah sama dengan jumlah kos barang siap berserta dengan kos kerja dalam proses.

Process Costing 2

2009-01-21T23:11:00.001-08:00

II. Kaedah Purata Wajaran

Di bawah kaedah purata wajaran, menentukan unit persaman pengeluaran (eup) dan kos seunit, dan kerja dalam proses pada akhir tempoh (kedua-dua unit dan kos) ditambah kepada pengeluaran dalam tempoh semasa (kedua-dua unit dan kos) dan mengira purata unit persamaan pengeluaran dan kos seunit.

Semua unit yang disiapkan sepanjang tempoh yang diberikan akan diagihkan kos seunit yang sama, tanpa mengira bila ianya dimulakan.

Process Costing 3

2009-01-21T23:10:00.000-08:00

III. Kaedah MDKD(FIFO)

Kaedah MDKD (FIFO) berasaskan kepada andaian bahawa unit-unit yang diproses akan disiapkan terlebih dahulu.

Justeru itu, kos yang mula-mula dilibatkan sepanjang satu tempoh akan direkod untuk melengkapkan unit yang dimulakan dahulu ( kerja dalam proses pada awal tempoh).

Selepas kerja dalam proses disiapkan, kos-kos akan dikira ke atas unit-unit baru yang dimulakan sepanjang tempoh semasa.

Unit-unit dalam proses diasingkan dari pengeluaran baru dan kos-kos bagi dua tempoh (semasa dan masa lepas) juga tidak disatukan sebelum pemindahan akhir pengeluaran sempurna keluar dari sesebuah jabatan.

Process Costing 4

2009-01-21T23:07:00.000-08:00

IV. Cost Flow

Purchases of raw materials
Raw materials
Accounts payable

Issue direct materials to production
Work in process--Department A
Raw materials

Employ direct labor
Work in process--Department A
Accrued payroll

Incur manufacturing O/H
Manufacturing O/H
Accounts payable, accumulated depreciation, etc.

Apply O/H to production
Work in process--Department A
Manufacturing O/H

Transfer to next department
Work in process--Department B
Work in process-Department A

Transfer to finished goods
Finished goods
Work in process--Department B

Sell goods
Accounts receivable
Sales

Cost of sales
Finished goods

Close over(under)applied O/H

1. To cost of sales

Cost of sales
Manufacturing O/H
(If underapplied)

Manufacturing O/H
Cost of sales
(If overapplied)

2. Prorate to cost of sales, finished goods and work in process on the basis of the balances in the accounts

Cost of sales
Finished goods
Work in process--Department
Manufacturing O/H
(If underapplied)

Manufacturing O/H
Cost of sales
Finished goods
Work in process--Department
(If overapplied)

Process Costing 5

2009-01-21T23:03:00.000-08:00

V. Cost of Production Report

The purpose is to summarize all the periodic activity in a department's work in process account. The report can utilize FIFO or the weighted-average technique in calculating the equivalent units of production.

Example: A firm produces a product which requires processing through three departments: grinding, mixing and cooking. Data for the grinding department during a recent period follow: (000 omitted)

Units:
Work in process, beginning inventory: 5
Work in process, ending inventory: 4
Started during the period: 80
Shipped out during the period: 81

Costs:
Work in process, beginning inventory: $7.60
Material X $4.80
Material Y 0.00
Conversion cost 2.80
Added during period:
Material X $60.00
Material Y $25.50
Conversion $36.90

Material X is added at beginning of work in the department. Material Y is added when the goods are 60% complete as to conversion. Conversion costs are added uniformly during work in the department. The beginning work in process inventory is 40% complete as to conversion and the ending work in process inventory is 75% complete.

Further reading:
Process Costing 1

Job-order Costing - Cost Flow

2009-01-19T22:19:00.000-08:00

Cost Flow

The journal entries to record the costs as flow through and out of the firm follow:

* Purchases of raw materials
Raw materials
Accounts payable

* Issue direct materials to production
Work in process
Raw materials

* Employ direct labor

Work in process
Accrued payroll

* Incur actual manufacturing OH expenses
Manufacturing OH
Accounts payable, accumulated depreciation, etc.

* Apply manufacturing OH to production
Work in process
Manufacturing OH

* Complete jobs
Finished goods
Work in process

* Sell goods
Accounts receivable
Sales
Cost of goods sold
Finished goods

* Close over (under) applied OH

1. To cost of sales

a) If manufacturing OH is underapplied

Cost of goods sold
Manufacturing OH

b) If manufacturing OH is overapplied

Manufacturing OH
Cost of goods sold

2. Prorate to cost of sales, finished goods and work in process on the basis of the balances in the accounts.

a) If manufacturing OH is underapplied

Cost of goods sold
Finished goods
Work in process
Manufacturing OH

b) If manufacturing OH is overapplied

Manufacturing OH
Cost of goods sold
Finished goods
Work in process

Example: Monthly activities to be journalized using a job-order costing system:

* Raw materials purchased, $150,000

Raw materials 150,000
Accounts Payable 150,000

* Raw materials issued to jobs, $120,000. (90% direct, 10% indirect)

Work in process 108,000
Manufacturing OH 12,000
Raw materials 120,000

* Factory payroll, $200,000, of which $140,000 is for direct labor

Work in process 140,000
Manufacturing OH 60,000
Accrued payroll 200,000

* Depreciation of factory equipment $18,000

Manufacturing OH 18,000
Accumulated depreciation 18,000

* Other manufacturing OH incurred during the month, $90,000

Manufacturing OH 90,000
Accounts payable, etc. 90,000

* OH is applied at $9 per machine hour. 21,000 MH used during the month

Work in process 189,000
Manufacturing OH 189,000

* Jobs finished amounted to $450,000

Finished goods 450,000
Work in process 450,000

* Orders shipped to customers, which cost $400,000, were billed at 50% above cost

Accounts receivable 600,000
Sales 600,000

Cost of sales 400,000
Finished goods 400,000

* Over (under) applied manufacturing O/H is closed to cost of sales

Manufacturing O/H 9,000
Cost of sales 9,000

What is the ending balance in the following accounts? Assume that the beginning balance in work in process is $33,000.

Cost of sales $391,000
Work in Process 20,000
Finished goods 50,000

Job-order Costing

2009-01-19T22:10:00.000-08:00

A. Job-order costing requires the collection of costs by physically identifiable jobs using job-order cost sheets. The jobs become the basis for calculating unit costs.

The basic elements for a job-order cost system are:

1. Job-order cost sheet.
2. Materials requisition form.
3. Employee time ticket.
4. Overhead rate.
5. Completed job sheet.

B. Accounting for cost elements:

1.Direct material and direct labor. These costs can be traced directly to a job (job-order costing) or to a producing department (process costing) and subsequently to the product.

2.Manufacturing overhead. These costs are not readily traceable to the product, but they can be:

a.traced directly to producing departments and indirectly to the product.

b.traced directly to service departments and indirectly to producing departments and indirectly to the product.

c.In making the allocation of manufacturing overhead to products, the calculation of a manufacturing overhead rate is required. The overhead rate can be used with one of several costing systems that are available:

1)actual costing under which all manufacturing costs are charged to the product at actual cost. This would occur at the end of the accounting period once all the actual costs and activity (DLH, MH, DL$, etc,) are known.

OH rate = actual OH / actual activity

The amount of manufacturing overhead charged to production is equal to the actual overhead rate multiplied by the actual activity (inputs).

2)normal costing under which actual material and labor costs are assigned directly to the product but manufacturing overhead costs are assigned the product using a predetermined overhead rate.

This requires an estimate of overhead expenses and related activity before the period begins.

OH rate = estimated OH / estimated activity

The amount of manufacturing overhead Charged to production is equal to the predetermined OH rate multiplied by the actual inputs (DLH, MH, DL$, etc.).

The predetermined overhead charged to production will equal actual manufacturing overhead only if the estimated activity and expenses are predicted with absolute accuracy.

The difference between the overhead charged to production and the overhead actually incurred is considered to be:

*underapplied if actual manufacturing OH expenses exceed the applied manufacturing OH expenses.

*overapplied if applied manufacturing OH expenses exceed the actual manufacturing overhead.

At the end of the accounting period, the under or overapplied overhead is closed to:

*cost of goods sold or

*cost of goods sold, work in process and finished goods in proportion to the ending balances in these accounts.

As jobs are completed, the cost of the completed job is transferred from work in process to finished goods. The value of the work in process inventory is equal to the total costs accumulated for each job still in process.

Types of Costing Systems

2009-01-19T22:09:00.000-08:00

Para pengurus menghadapi masalah yang sukar dalam menentukan amaun bahan, buruh dan overhead bagi setiap unit separa siap dan unit siap sepenuhnya. Perkara ini memerlukan pengiktirafan dua perkara:
* bentuk proses pengeluaran dan
* kitaran perakaunan kos

Secara umumnya terdapat dua kaedah atau sistem untuk mengira kos perkilangan bagi setiap produk secara individu:
A. Pengkosan pesanan kerja (Job-order costing)
B. Pengkosan Proses (Process costing)

A. Job-order costing

Under job-order costing, costs are collected by physically identifiable jobs. Upon completion, the total costs accumulated for the job are transferred to the finished goods account. To determine the unit cost of a product, the total cost of the job is divided by the number of units produced. Costs that have been accumulated for the jobs still in process at the end of a period the value of the ending work in process inventory.

B. Process costing

Under process costing, costs are collected by department for a specified period of time. Costs are collected by department for a period, such as a month, without any attempt to associate costs with the individual units. At the end of the period, the total costs collected for the department are divided by the physical output to obtain an average cost. A cost of production report is prepared which shows the cost of direct material, direct labor and manufacturing overhead used to process a unit through a department; the cost of each unit of finished product; and the value of the work in process inventory.

Kos: Terma, Konsep dan Pengkelasan

2009-01-14T01:23:00.000-08:00

Pengkelasan Kos

I. Kos Perkilangan (Manufacturing Costs)
II. Kos Bukan Perkilangan (Nonmanufacturing Costs )
III. Kos Produk dan Kos Tempoh (Product and Period Costs)
IV. Kos bagi Perancangan, Kawalan dan Pembuatan Keputusan

Nota Bab 2 boleh di muat turun di sini

I. Kos Perkilangan

Terdapat 3 jenis kos perkilangan iaitu;

A. Bahan langsung. Ia merupakan kos berubah.
B. Buruh langsung. Ia juga merupakan kos berubah.
C. Overhead perkilangan. Semua kos perkilangan selain dari kos bahan langsung dan kos buruh langsung dikelaskan sebagai overhead perkilangan; (e.g., idle time, overtime premium, indirect labor, indirect materials, factory depreciation, factory rent, factory insurance, etc.)
Sebahagiannya terdiri daripada kos berubah dan sebahagian bersifat kos tetap.

II. Kos Bukan Perkilangan

Secara umumnya kos bukan perkilangan dikelaskan mengikut:
A. Belanja jualan atau pemasaran. Ada yang merupakan kos tetap dan sebahagian yang lain merupakan kos berubah.
B. Belanja pentadbiran. Juga ada yang bersifat kos tetap dan ada yang bersifat kos berubah.

III. Product and Period Costs

The traditional financial accounting model (GAAP):
A. Product costs are identified as manufacturing costs.
B. Period costs are identified as selling and administrative expenses.

IV. Costs for Planning, Control and Decision-making

Costs are often classified one way for planning, another for control and yet another for decision-making. Some of the various ways of classifying costs follow:

A. Variable costs
B. Fixed costs
C. Direct costs
D. Indirect costs
E. Controllable costs
F. Non-controllable costs
G. Differential or incremental costs
H. Opportunity costs
I. Sunk costs

Baca juga:
Introduction-to-cost-terms-and-purposes

Perbandingan antara Perakaunan Pengurusan dan Perakaunan Kewangan

2009-01-14T01:14:00.000-08:00

Terdapat enam perbezaan utama antara Perakaunan Pengurusan dan Perakaunan Kewangan

i. Pengguna Maklumat
ii. Penekanan terhadap masa (sejarah, semasa dan masa depan)
iii. Relevan sesuatu data
iv. Ketepatan data vs Ketepatan masa laporan
v. Sebuah organisasi atau sesuatu bahagian/unit
vi. Keperluan peraturan dan undang-undang

Slide Bab 1 Boleh di muat turun di sini

=============================================

Terdapat tujuh perbezaan utama antara Perakaunan Pengurusan dan Perakaunan Kewangan

i. Pengguna Maklumat

1. Financial accounting reports are prepared for external parties, whereas managerial accounting reports are prepared for internal users.

ii. Emphasis on the future

1. Financial accounting summarizes past transactions. Managerial accounting has a strong future orientation.

iii. Relevance of data

1. Financial accounting data should be objective and verifiable. Managerial accountants focus on providing relevant data even if it is not completely objective or verifiable.

iv. Less emphasis on precision

1. Financial accounting focuses on precision when reporting to external parties. Managerial accounting aids decision makers by providing good estimates as soon as possible rather than waiting for precise data later.

v. Segments of an organization

1. Financial accounting is concerned with reporting for the company as a whole. Managerial accounting focuses more on the segments of the company. Examples of segments include:
a. Product lines, sales territories, divisions, departments, etc.

vi. Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP)

1. Financial accounting conforms to GAAP. Managerial accounting is not bound by GAAP.

vii. Managerial accounting – not mandatory

1. Financial accounting is mandatory because various outside parties require periodic financial statements. Managerial accounting is not mandatory.

Baca juga:
Accountants-role-in-organization

Silibus MA & Kuliah

2009-01-12T19:00:00.000-08:00

Silibus

Sila muat turun silibus MA I di sini

Kuliah

Selasa : 11.30 pagi - 1.30 tengahari
Tempat: BK6

Rabu : 2.30 petang - 04.30 petang
Tempat: BK6

PERHATIAN*
Kuliah pertama bermula pada Selasa, 13 Januari 2009 jam 11.30 pagi.

Kehadiran adalah wajib, jika ada sebarang masalah hendaklah memaklumkan kepada saya melalui sms atau email, dan kemudiannya mesti disusuli dengan dokumen bertulis (surat atau sijil sakit atau sebagainya).

PEPERIKSAAN AKHIR DDW2243

2008-12-01T00:01:00.000-08:00

Kepada pelajar-pelajar saya.

Selamat menghadapi peperiksaan akhir, semoga mendapat kejayaan cemerlang

Subjek: Perakaunan Pengurusan
Tarikh: 14 Disember 2008 (Ahad)
Waktu: 9.00 - 11.00 pagi

Sila pastikan datang awal, berpakaian kemas mengikut kod etika berpakaian kolej berserta dengan alatulis yang perlu untuk peperiksaan

MKK 10% Sesi 2008-2009

2008-09-17T17:47:00.000-07:00

Sila semak markah kerja kursus 10% anda

No. K/Pengenalan JUM 10%
1 890611125249 54.50 91%
2 890209145313 42.00 70%
3 880816035336 47.00 78%
4 890531135324 54.50 91%
5 890801115244 46.50 78%
6 891018035378 58.50 98%
7 890413075148 48.00 80%
8 890415095070 30.50 51%
9 890922115566 49.50 83%
10 880207115410 45.00 75%

11 890809105374 48.50 81%
12 890221015685 50.50 84%
13 891230145021 27.50 46%
14 890830085451 46.50 78%
15 890821036156 - 0%
16 890526065448 51.50 86%
17 890103145446 49.00 82%
18 890929106232 36.50 61%
19 880123025872 43.50 73%
20 890529035316 43.00 72%
21 890523145856 48.50 81%
22 890703015936 45.00 75%
23 870609465094 37.00 62%
24 890628065414 15.00 25%
25 890731105162 45.50 76%
26 891216295076 53.50 89%
27 890208086534 43.00 72%
28 891225127179 50.00 83%
29 890611095158 50.00 83%
30 890415085462 25.00 42%
31 891227065274 - 0%
32 890907115410 - 0%
33 891227055236 43.50 73%
34 891027135012 50.00 83%
35 891023036068 28.50 48%
36 890630126079 48.50 81%
37 891019075603 - 0%
38 880302035241 43.00 72%
39 880911036206 45.00 75%
40 890210035306 47.50 79%
41 891031115477 14.00 23%
42 870416526743 46.00 77%
43 890822065602 47.00 78%
44 861226295425 50.00 83%
45 861023025687 13.00 22%
46 850602035210 36.00 60%
47 870507095176 32.50 54%
48 881123086338 41.00 68%
49 881028265258 40.50 68%
50 871216295076 27.00 45%

Managerial Accounting Video Library

2008-09-05T17:39:00.000-07:00

MCGRAW-HILL/Irwin
MANAGERIAL/COST ACCOUNTING VIDEO LIBRARY
MANAGERIAL ACCOUNTING 12e
Garrison, Noreen, Brewer

Chapter	Title	Length
1	The Need for Managerial Accounting Information High Res (.swf) 32.6MB Low Res QuickTime 7.9MB	9:53
2	Classifying Costs for Decision-Making High Res (.swf) 36.0MB Low Res QuickTime 8.9MB	10:53
3	Job Order Costing High Res (.swf) 38.7MB Low Res QuickTime 9.4MB	11:39
4	Process Costing High Res (.swf) 38.7MB Low Res QuickTime 10.1MB	12:31
5	Computer-Intergrated Manufactoring: Nucor High Res QuickTime 25.1MB Low Res QuickTime 8.9MB	11:00
6	Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships High Res (.swf) 36.3MB Low Res Quicktime 9.6MB	10:53
7	Absorption and Variable Costing High Res (.swf) 29.8MB Low Res Quicktime 7.9MB	9:39
8	ABC Overview High Res (.swf) 26.5MB Low Res Quicktime 6.6MB	8:07
9	The Budget Process High Res (.swf) 29.5MB Low Res Quicktime 7.3MB	9:00
10	Setting Standards High Res (.swf) 24.5MB Low Res Quicktime 6.0MB	7:18
11	Flexible Budgets High Res (.swf) 23.7MB Low Res Quicktime 4.0MB	7:06
11	Overhead Analysis High Res (.swf) 37.2MB Low Res Quicktime 9.3MB	11:26
12	Segment Reporting High Res (.swf) 33.3MB Low Res Quicktime 8.2MB	9:59
13	Relevant Costs for Decision Making High Res (.swf) 37.6MB Low Res Quicktime 9.3MB	10:22
14	Capital Budgeting Decisions High Res (.swf) 41.1MB Low Res Quicktime 10.1MB	12:28
15	Statement of Cash Flows High Res Quicktime 61.1MB Low Res Quicktime 8.6MB	10:33
16	Financial Statement Analysis High Res Quicktime 55.5MB Low Res Quicktime 7.8MB	9:34

Introduction to Managerial Accouting

2008-08-09T19:46:00.000-07:00

Overview

Welcome to the study of cost accounting. This introductory chapter explains the intertwining roles of managers and management accountants in choosing an organization’s strategy, and in planning and controlling its operations. Unlike the remainder of the textbook, this chapter has no “number crunching.” Its main purpose is to emphasize the management accountant’s role in providing information for managers.

Review Points

1.It is important to distinguish management accounting from financial accounting.

• Management accounting measures and reports financial information and nonfinancial information that helps managers make decisions to fulfill the goals of an organization. Management accounting (a) emphasizes the future, (b) aims to influence the behavior of managers and employees in achieving the goals of an organization, and (c) is not particularly constrained by generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP).
• Financial accounting focuses on reporting to external parties. It measures and records business transactions and provides financial statements—the balance sheet, income statement, statement of cash flows, and statement of retained earnings—based on GAAP.

2. Cost accounting measures and reports financial information and nonfinancial information relating to the cost of acquiring or utilizing resources in an organization. Cost accounting includes those parts of both management accounting and financial accounting in which cost information is collected or analyzed.

3. Cost management is the approaches and activities of managers in short-run and long-run planning and control decisions that increase value for customers and lower costs of products and services. For example, rearranging the production-floor layout might reduce manu-facturing costs, or additional product design costs might be incurred in an effort to increase revenues and profits.

4. Strategy specifies how an organization matches its own capabilities with the opportunities in the marketplace to accomplish its objectives. In other words, strategy describes how an organization will compete and the opportunities its employees should seek and pursue. Companies follow one of two broad strategies:

• Sell quality products or services at low prices. An example is Southwest Airlines.
• Sell relatively unique products or services at higher prices than charged by competitors. An example is Ralph Lauren.

Choosing between these strategies is among the most important decisions that managers make. The term strategic cost management is often used to describe cost management that specifically focuses on strategic issues.

5. Management accounting facilitates planning and control. Planning comprises (a) selecting organization goals, predicting results under various alternative ways of achieving those goals, deciding how to attain the desired goals, and (b) communicating the goals and how to attain them to the entire organization. Control comprises (a) taking actions that implement the planning decisions, and (b) deciding how to evaluate performance and what feedback to provide that will help future decision making. Control in one accounting period is linked to planning for the next period by means of feedback. Managers use feedback to examine past performance (the control function) and systematically explore alternative ways of making better informed decisions and plans in the future (the planning function).

6. Budgeting is essential for planning and control. A budget is the quantitative expression of a proposed plan of action by management for a specified period and is an aid to coordinating what needs to be done to implement that plan. A key input used in developing budgets is past financial and nonfinancial information routinely recorded in the management accounting system.

7. Management accountants perform three important roles: problem solving, scorekeeping, and attention directing. Problem solving uses comparative analysis for decision making. Scorekeeping entails accumulating data and reporting results—to all levels of management—describing how the organization is doing. Attention directing helps managers focus on opportunities and problems. Often these roles are simultaneously performed due to the ongoing interaction among strategic decisions, planning decisions, and control decisions.

8. The value chain refers to the sequence of six business functions in which usefulness (value to the customer) is added to the products or services of a company. These business functions are research and development (R&D); design of products, services, or processes; production; marketing; distribution; and customer service. Managers in each of these business functions of the value chain are customers of management accounting information. Rather than proceeding sequentially through the value chain, companies can realize significant gains when various parts of the value chain work together. For example, additional spending on R&D and product design might be more than offset by lower costs of production and customer service.

9. The design and operation of management accounting systems are guided by four themes that are important to managers: customer focus, key success factors (cost and efficiency, quality, time, innovation), continuous improvement and benchmarking, and value-chain and supply-chain analysis. The term supply chain describes the flow of goods, services, and information from the initial sources of materials and services to the delivery of products to customers, regardless of whether those activities occur in the same organization or in other organizations. Collectively, the four themes direct the company toward attracting and retaining profitable customers who are satisfied.

10. Three important guidelines help management accountants provide the most value in performing their problem solving, scorekeeping, and attention-directing roles:

a. Employ the cost-benefit approach. This approach guides decision making: resources should be spent if they are expected to better attain company goals in relation to the expected costs of those resources. For example, consider budgeting systems as economic goods. The expected costs of a proposed budgeting system (such as personnel, software, and training) should be compared with its expected benefits, which are the collective decisions of managers that will better attain the company’s goals. In particular, measurement of the expected benefits is seldom easy.
b. Give full recognition to behavioral as well as technical considerations. A management accounting system should have two simultaneous missions for providing information: (i) to help managers make wise economic decisions (the technical mission), and (ii) to help motivate managers and employees to strive for the company’s goals (the behavioral mission). Management is primarily a human activity; the emphasis needs to be on how to help individuals do their jobs better.
c. Use different costs for different purposes. To illustrate this guideline, consider how to account for advertising. For the purpose of preparing financial statements under GAAP, advertising is an expense in the accounting period when it is incurred. For the purpose of determining a product’s selling price, its advertising costs, along with its other costs from all business functions of the value chain, should be taken into account.

11. Most organizations distinguish line management from staff management. Line management is directly responsible for attaining the goals of an organization. Staff management exists to provide advice and assistance to line management. When organizations rely on teams for attaining their goals, the traditional distinction between line and staff management is less clear-cut.

12. The chief financial officer (CFO), a staff management function, is the executive responsible for overseeing the financial operations of an organization, which typically include controllership, treasury, risk management, taxes, and internal audit. The controller, also a staff management function, is the financial executive primarily responsible for both management accounting and financial accounting. In performing the problem-solving and attention-directing roles, the controller “controls” by exerting an influence that helps managers make better informed decisions.

13. Accountants consistently rank high in public opinion surveys on the ethics exhibited by members of different professions. Professional accounting organizations such as the Institute of Management Accountants (IMA), the largest association of management accountants in the United States, play an important role in promoting high ethical standards. For example, the IMA has identified four standards of ethical conduct for management accountants: competence, confidentiality, integrity, and objectivity.

An Introduction to Cost Terms and Purposes

2008-08-09T19:40:00.000-07:00

Overview

This chapter introduces the basic terminology of cost accounting. Communication among managers and management accountants is greatly facilitated by having a common understanding of the meaning of cost terms and concepts. The chapter illustrates a major theme of the textbook: using different costs for different purposes. The chapter also provides a framework to help you understand cost accounting and cost management.

Review Points

1. Accountants define cost as a resource sacrificed (used) or forgone to achieve a specific objective. For example, it might cost $3,000 per month to rent a building. To guide their decisions, managers often want to know how much a particular thing costs. This “thing” is called a cost object, anything for which a measurement of costs is desired. In the following questions, the cost object is in italics: What selling price should be charged for a product? Which machine is the least expensive to operate?

2. Costing systems account for costs in two basic stages. The first stage is cost accumulation, the collection of cost data in some organized way by means of an accounting system. The second stage is cost assignment, a general term that encompasses both (a) tracing accumulated costs that have a direct relationship to a cost object and (b) allocating accumulated costs that have an indirect relationship to a cost object.

3. A key question in cost assignment is whether costs have a direct or an indirect relationship to the particular cost object.

• The direct costs of a cost object are related to the particular cost object and can be traced to that cost object in an economically feasible (cost-effective) way. The term cost tracing describes the assignment of direct costs to the particular cost object.
• The indirect costs of a cost object are related to the particular cost object but cannot be traced to that cost object in an economically feasible way. The term cost allocation describes the assignment of indirect costs to the particular cost object.

Several factors affect the classification of a cost as direct or indirect: the materiality (relative importance) of the cost in question, available information-gathering technology, design of operations, and contractual arrangements.

4. Consider this question: Is a production department manager’s salary a direct cost or an indirect cost? The answer: It depends on the choice of the cost object. For example, if the cost object is the production department, the salary is a direct cost because it can be traced to the cost object. But if the cost object is one of the many products manufactured in the production department, the salary is an indirect cost because it can be allocated (but not traced) to the cost object.

5. Two basic types of cost-behavior patterns are found in accounting systems.

• A variable cost changes in total in proportion to changes in the related level of total activity or volume. A variable cost does not change on a per unit basis when the related level of total activity or volume changes.
• A fixed cost remains unchanged in total for a given time period despite wide changes in the related level of total activity or volume. A fixed cost increases (decreases) on a per unit basis when the related level of total activity or volume decreases (increases).

Costs are variable or fixed with respect to a specific cost object and for a given time period. A relevant range is the span of normal activity or volume level in which there is a specific relationship between the activity or volume level and the cost in question.

6. A cost driver is a variable, such as the level of activity or volume, that causes costs to increase or decrease over a given time period. In other words, a cause-and-effect relationship exists between a change in the level of activity or volume and a change in the level of total costs.

• The cost driver of variable costs is the level of activity or volume whose change causes these costs to change proportionately. For example, the number of trucks assembled is a cost driver of the cost of steering wheels for the trucks.
• Fixed costs have no cost driver in the short run but may have a cost driver in the long run. For example, the equipment and staff costs of product testing typically are fixed in the short run with respect to changes in the volume of production. In the long run, however, the company increases or decreases these costs to the levels needed to support future production levels.

7. Accounting systems typically report both total costs and unit costs (also called average costs). A unit cost is computed by dividing some amount of total costs by the related number of units. Unit costs are regularly used in financial reports. For many decisions, however, managers should think in terms of total costs rather than unit costs because fixed cost per unit changes when the related level of total volume changes. Unit costs, therefore, should be interpreted with caution if they include a fixed-cost component. The Tennessee Products example, text p. 38, illustrates this important point.

8. Companies in the manufacturing, merchandising, and service sectors of the economy are frequently referred to in the study of cost accounting.

• Manufacturing-sector companies purchase materials and components and convert them into various finished goods. These companies typically have three types of inventory: direct materials inventory, work-in-process inventory, and finished goods inventory.
• Merchandise-sector companies purchase and then sell tangible products without changing their basic form. These companies have one type of inventory: merchandise inventory.
• Service-sector companies provide services or intangible products—for example, legal advice, checking accounts, or audits—to their customers. These companies do not have an inventory of items for sale.

9. For companies with inventories, generally accepted accounting principles distinguish inventoriable costs from period costs.

• Inventoriable costs are all costs of a product that are regarded as an asset when they are incurred and then become cost of goods sold when the product is sold. For manufacturing companies, all manufacturing costs are inventoriable costs. For merchandising companies, inventoriable costs are the acquisition costs of merchandise. Because service companies have no inventories, they have no inventoriable costs.
• Period costs are all costs in the income statement other than cost of goods sold. Period costs are treated as expenses of the period in which they are incurred.

10. Three terms are widely used in describing manufacturing costs. In the following definitions, “the cost object” refers to “work in process and then finished goods.”

• Direct material costs are the acquisition costs of all materials that eventually become part of the cost object and that can be traced to that cost object in an economically feasible way.
• Direct manufacturing labor costs include the compensation of all manufacturing labor that can be traced to the cost object in an economically feasible way.
• Indirect manufacturing costs (also called manufacturing overhead costs or factory overhead costs) are all manufacturing costs that are related to the cost object but that cannot be traced to that cost object in an economically feasible way. Examples include power, indirect materials, indirect manufacturing labor, plant insurance, plant depreciation, and compensation of plant managers.

11. In the income statement of a manufacturing company, cost of goods sold is computed as follows (figures assumed):

Beginning finished goods $ 50,000
Add cost of goods manufactured 800,000
Cost of goods available for sale 850,000
Deduct ending finished goods 60,000
Cost of goods sold $790,000

The line item, cost of goods manufactured, refers to the cost of all goods brought to completion, whether they were started before or during the current accounting period. Cost of goods manufactured is often computed in a supporting schedule to the income statement as follows (figures assumed):

Beginning direct materials $ 60,000
Add purchases of direct materials 510,000
Direct materials available for use 570,000
Deduct ending direct materials 50,000
Direct materials used 520,000
Add direct manufacturing labor 100,000
Add indirect manufacturing costs 230,000
Manufacturing costs incurred during the period 850,000
Add beginning work in process 120,000
Total manufacturing cost to account for 970,000
Deduct ending work in process 170,000
Cost of goods manufactured $800,000

EXHIBIT 2-7, text p. 41, shows the flow of manufacturing costs in the general ledger, from Work-in-Process Inventory to Finished Goods Inventory to Cost of Goods Sold.

12. Manufacturing costing systems use the terms prime costs and conversion costs.

• Prime costs are all direct manufacturing costs. Under the three-part classification of manufacturing costs in paragraph 10, prime costs are equal to direct material costs plus direct manufacturing labor costs. In cases where other direct manufacturing cost categories are used, they too are prime costs. For example, power costs could be classified as a direct cost if the power is metered to specific areas of a plant that are dedicated to manufacturing separate products.
• Conversion costs are all manufacturing costs other than direct material costs; they are incurred to transform direct materials into finished goods. Under the three-part classification of manufacturing costs, conversion costs are equal to direct manufacturing labor costs plus indirect manufacturing costs.

13. All manufacturing labor compensation, except for direct labor and managers’ salaries, is usually classified as indirect labor costs—a major component of manufacturing overhead. Two main categories of indirect labor in manufacturing and service companies are overtime premium and idle time. Overtime premium consists of the wage rate paid to workers (for both direct labor and indirect labor) in excess of their straight-time wage rates. Overtime premium is classified as overhead when the overtime is attributable to the heavy overall volume of work. When a particular job, such as a rush order, is the sole reason for the overtime, the overtime premium is classified as a direct cost of that job. Idle time is wages paid for unproductive time caused by lack of orders, machine breakdowns, material shortages, poor scheduling, and the like.

14. Some manufacturing companies classify payroll fringe benefit costs of direct labor as overhead cost, whereas others classify them as direct labor cost. The latter approach is preferable because these payroll fringe benefit costs are a fundamental aspect of acquiring the direct manufacturing labor services. To prevent disputes about cost items such as payroll fringe benefits, training time, overtime premium, idle time, vacations, and sick leave, contracts and laws should be as specific as feasible regarding definitions and measurements. The example, text p. 45, shows that the classification of payroll fringe benefits can be important for income tax purposes.

15. An important theme of the textbook is using different costs for different purposes. For example, managers can assign different costs to a product depending on their purpose. A product cost is the sum of costs assigned to a product for a specific purpose, such as (a) preparing financial statements for external reporting under generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP), (b) contracts with government agencies, or (c) pricing and product-mix decisions. For financial statements based on GAAP, a product cost includes only inventoriable costs. A product cost includes a broader set of costs for reimbursement under government contracts, or a still broader set of costs for pricing and product-mix decisions.

16. Three important aspects of cost accounting and cost management are:

a. Calculating the cost of products, services, and other cost objects.
b. Obtaining information for planning and control and performance evaluation.
c. Analyzing the relevant information for decision making.

Quality

2008-06-18T23:59:00.000-07:00

Quality 1 Overview

Quality 2 Financial Measures

Quality 3 Customer and Vendor Measures

Quality 4 Cycle Time & Waste Measures

Quality 5 Baldrige, Deming, & ISO

Pricing

2008-06-18T23:53:00.000-07:00

Pricing-1 Overview

Pricing- 2 Gross Margin Method

Pricing-3 Return on Assets Method

Pricing- 4 Time & Materials Method

Pricing- 5 Target Costing Method

Pricing- 6 Transfer Pricing

Short-Run Decision Analysis 1 Terms

2008-06-18T23:46:00.000-07:00

Short-Run Decision Analysis

Short-Run Decision Analysis 2 Differential Costs

Short-Run Decision Analysis 3 Special Orders

Short-Run Decision Analysis 4 Make or Buy

Short-Run Decision Analysis 5 Segment Decisions

Short-Run Decision Analysis 6 Scarce Resource

Short-Run Decision Analysis 7 Sell or Process Further

Standard Costing

2008-06-18T23:41:00.000-07:00

Standard Costing 1 Overview

Standard Costing 2 Material Variances

Standard Costing 3 Labor Variances

Standard Costing 4 Variable Overhead Variances

Standard Costing 5 Fixed Overhead Variances

Standard Costing 6 Recap Variances

Perform Management & Evaluation

2008-06-18T23:34:00.000-07:00

Perform Mgt & Eval. -1 Overview

Perform Mgt & Eval. - 2 Balanced Scorecard

Perform Mgt & Eval. - 3 Responsibility Accounting

Perform Mgt & Eval. - 4 Flexible Budgets

Perform Mgt & Eval. - 5 ROI

Perform Mgt & Eval. - 6 PM & AT

Perform Mgt & Eval. - 7 Residual Income

Perform Mgt & Eval. - 8 EVA

PVA ABC JIT

2008-06-18T23:22:00.000-07:00

PVA ABC JIT -1 Overview

PVA ABC JIT-2 PVA

PVA ABC JIT-3 ABC

PVA ABC JIT-4 ABC Example

PVA ABC JIT-5 JIT Philosophy

PVA ABC JIT-6 JIT Types of Time

PVA ABC JIT -7 Evolution of JIT

PVA ABC JIT- 8 JIT Backflushing

PVA ABC JIT -9 JIT Backflushing Example

Management Process

2008-06-18T21:40:00.000-07:00

Management Process-1 Overview

Management Process-2 Plan

Management Process-3 Perform A

Management Process-4 Perform B

Management Process-5 Evaluate

Management Process-6 Communicate

Excel Spread Sheet Basics

2008-06-03T19:45:00.000-07:00

Excel Spread Sheet Basics - Using a Formula

The Beauty Of Excel #1: Formulas & Functions

The Beauty Of Excel #2: Formulas, Functions & Charts

excel practice test

Budgeting Process

2008-06-03T19:30:00.000-07:00

Budgeting Process - Part 1: Overview

Budgeting Process - Part 2: Sales Budget

Budgeting Process - Part 3: Production Budget

Budgeting Process - Part 4: Material Purchases

Budgeting Process - Part 5: Direct Labor

Budgeting Process - Part 6:OH Budget

Budgeting Process - Part 7: SAG Expenses

Budgeting Process - Part 8: COGM Budget

Budgeting Process - Part 9: Income Statement

Budgeting Process - Part 10: Cash Budgets

Cost Behavior

2008-06-03T19:20:00.000-07:00

Cost Behavior - Part 1: Overview

Cost Behavior - Part 2: Types

Cost Behavior - Part 3: Estimating Cost

Cost Behavior - Part 4: High Low Method 1

Cost Behavior - Part 5: High Low Method 2

Cost Behavior - Part 6" CVP 1 (Income Statement)

Cost Behavior - Part 7: CVP 2 (Example)

Cost Behavior - Part 8: Sales Mix

Cost Concept

2008-06-03T19:04:00.000-07:00

Cost Concepts - Part 1 Terms

Cost Concepts - Part 2: Income Statement

Cost Concepts - Part 3: Manufacturing Income Statement

Cost Concepts - Part 4: Manufacturing Inventories

Cost Concepts - Part 5: WIP & OH

Cost Concepts - Part 6: OH

Cost Concepts - Part 7: OH

Cost Concepts - Part 8: OH Traditional & ABC

Job Order Costing

2008-06-03T18:33:00.000-07:00

Job Order Costing-Part1: JOC vs PC

Job Order Costing-Part 2

Job Order Costing-Part 3

Job Order Costing-Part 4

Job Order Costing-Part 5

Job Order Costing-Part 6

Job Order Costing-Part 7

Job Order Costing-Part 8

Job Order Costing-Part 9

Job Order Costing-Part 10

Job Order Costing-Part 11

Process Costing

2008-06-03T17:43:00.000-07:00

Process Costing Part 1 - Cost Flow

Process Costing Part 2 - WIP

Process Costing Part 3 - WIP

Process Costing Part 4 - FIFO Method

Process Costing Part 5 - FIFO Method

Process Costing Part 6 - FIFO Method

Process Costing Part 7 - Average Method

Process Costing Part 8 - Average Method

Process Costing Part 9 - Average Method

Konsep dan Gelagat Kos

2008-05-14T19:06:00.000-07:00

Kos

Kos adalah sebarang sumber yang perlu dikorbankan atau diserahkan untuk mendapatkan barang atau perkhidmatan.

Kos Belum Luput (Aset)

Mana-mana barang atau perkhidmatan yang belum digunakan, dan dengan itu mempunyai potensi ekonomi untuk digunakan pada masa akan datang dipanggil kos belum luput atau aset.

Kos Luput (Belanja)

Kos yang telah luput dipanggil belanja dan ditolak dari hasil untuk mendapat pendapatan.

Contoh mudah untuk membezakan di antara kos dengan belanja adalah seperti berikut:

Firma membeli sebuah kereta pada 1.1.200x7, berhearga RM35,000. Kereta itu dijangka akan digunakan selama 5 tahun, selepas mana firma menganggar boleh menjualnya pada harga RM5,000. Firma menggunakan kaedah garislurus untuk mengira susutnilai.

MKK

2008-05-04T22:12:00.000-07:00

assalamualaikum, sila semak markah MKK sdra/i

BIL	NAMA PELAJAR	JUM	GRD
		40%
1	AHMAD ABDULLAH BIN MOHAMAD	30.3	A-
2	AISYAH BT SUHAIMI	30.5	A-
3	AIZAT BIN MOHD KASSIM	26.9	B
4	ARIFUDEEN BIN ABDUL LATIF	30.0	A-
5	ASMA' BT SHAMJUDDIN	36.9	A+
6	HAFIZAH SHAARI	35.5	A
7	KHADIJAH BINTI ISMAIL	35.2	A
8	M HASIF M HANIF	20.0	C
9	MOHAMMAD FARHAN MD RADZI	32.5	A
10	MUNIRAH JOHARI	31.5	A-
11	NABILAH BT BAKRI	37.0	A+
12	NOOR ALIMIAH RAMLI	34.8	A
13	NOORAIN BT CHE AHMAD	27.3	B
14	NOR EMMA NAZIRAH MOHD DAUD	35.9	A
15	NOR FARIHAN BT YUSOF	30.8	A-
16	NURABIDAH BT MUHAMAD	32.4	A
17	NURUL ASIKIN RAMLI	37.4	A+
18	NURULBASYIRAH BT YASNI	34.1	A
19	NURULIZA BINTI MOHAMMAD	31.5	A-
20	NURWAHIDA BT MUSTAFFA	34.7	A
21	SITI FATIMAH ZAHRA BT MOHAMMAD	34.1	A
22	SURIANI BT NOOR ZAIDY	36.8	A+
23	SYELATUL AKMAR SHAARONI	35.1	A
24	TENGKU NORSALAHAH TG KAMARUDDIN	36.5	A+
25	UMMU ILYANI RUSLI	35.3	A
26	YUSHASNITA CHE YUSOFF	36.8	A+
27	ZURAIDAH BT MUHAMMAD	29.4	B+

RELEVANT COSTS

2008-04-05T23:05:00.001-07:00

I. Decisions and Relevant Costs

A. Consider the final stages of the decision process. The decision is made on the basis of the difference in the effect of the various options on future performance. In other words, we ask what difference does it make?

The relevant information to the decision is the expected future data that is expected to differ between the alternatives or the expected future data that will be avoided if the alternative option is chosen.

Managerial accounting has an important role in the decision process as a means of collecting and reporting relevant data; information that will lead the decision maker to the best decision.

It is important to recognize that past or historical data have not direct bearing on the decision. Past data, in themselves, are not relevant because they are not expected future data. Decisions affect the future; nothing can alter what has already happened.

B. Examples:

1. What type of costs are always relevant in decision‑making?

Answer: Those costs that are expected to be different in the future or those costs that can be avoided.

2. What type of costs are always irrelevant in decision‑making?

Answer: Past or sunk costs

3. Want to drop Product A.

Annual sales, $200,000

Variable expenses, $140,000

Fixed expenses chargeable to the product, $90,000, of which $40,000 will continue even if Product A is dropped.

If Product A is dropped, what will be the effect on net income?

Answer: Net income will decrease by $10,000

4. In considering a special order situation that will enable a firm to make use of presently idle capacity, what type of costs would be irrelevant? Name one.

Answer: Any fixed capacity cost such as depreciation of equipment.

5. Want to sell in a special market.

Capacity, 8,000 units per month

Current sales, 7,000 units per month

Order to sell 1,000 units at $20 per unit in special market

Costs and expenses:

Production:

Direct materials $4

Direct labor $5

Variable overhead $2

Fixed overhead $8

Selling/other:

Variable $1

Fixed $6

If order is accepted, profits will increased or decrease and by how much?

Answer: Profits will increase by $8,000

6. Offer to buy parts outside.

Current production cost:

Direct materials $12

Direct labor $8

Variable overhead $3

Fixed overhead ($100,000) $10

Outside supplier offered to provide parts for $27 per unit on a long‑term contract. If offer is accepted, 30% of fixed overhead will continue. If offer accepted, the dollar advantage or disadvantage will be?

Answer: $3 advantage

7. Scrap or remachine.

1,000 obsolete units of product in inventory, cost $50,000.

Cost to remachine, $12,500

Selling price if remachined, $22,500

Selling price if scrapped, $1,000

Should the units be remachined or scrapped and what is the total relevant cost for the alternative chosen?

Answer: Remachine and $12,500